Chapter 11: The Transformation of Arabia...
In 622 when Mohammed and his followers received opposition in Mecca they immigrated to the more welcoming town of Medina. Medina was a city of Arabs and Jews, and thus Mohammed anticipated a warm response from Jews and Christians based on a common monotheism and prophetic tradition. But when some Jewish groups aligned with his enemies, Mohammed acted harshly to suppress them, exiling some of them and enslaving or killing others. The prophet now redirected Muslims to pray towards Mecca when they had originally been told to pray towards Jerusalem. This declared Islam and Arab religion, though in theory still open to all. Unlike the Christians of the Roman Empire who were primarily subordinate, the Islamic community was a state and soon a huge empire at the beginning of its history. Mohammed unlike Jesus or Buddha was a political and military leader able to implement his vision of an ideal Islamic society. The Islam brought peace to the warring tribes of Arabia and united them under one state. A after the death of Mohammed in 632 AD the Islamic/Arab empire stretched from Spain to India penetrating both Europe and China and governing most of the lands in between. Originally as regarding Islam as a religion uniquely their own and discourage conversion. By the middle of the eighth century however they came to view it as a universal religion and began seeking converts. Jews and Christians were seen as “people of the book,” and given protected status.
Chapter 12: The Mongols in China...
The Mongols ruled China for 70 years from 1209 to 1279. The Mongols adopted many aspects of Chinese lifestyle including taxation, administrative practices, and use of their postal system. The Mongols however did not become Chinese, nor did they accommodate every aspect of Chinese culture. Inside the new capital they established a forbidden city, where the royal family could continue their agrarian lifestyle. In by the mid-14th century the Mongols were forced out of China and after this brief rule the Mongols returned to their home in the steppe Valley.
The Mongols in Persia...
This Mongol takeover was far more abrupt than the extended process of conquest in China. The first invasion was led by Genghis Khan himself and was followed some 30 years later by a second assault under his grandson. This conquest was more destructive than that of the song Dynasty in China, this offense is against Persia and Iraq had no precedent in their history, although Persia had been repeatedly attacked, the most recent was from Turkic peoples, but they had been Muslims. The Mongols however were infidels in the eyes of Muslims, and the victory came as quite a shock and entity expansion of Islamic rule. This Mongol victory also had a degree of ferocity and slaughter that had never been experienced by the Persian people. The Mongols were not driven out of Persia rather they and their Turkic allies simply disappeared, through assimilation into the Persian society.
Chapter 13: European Comparisons: State-Building and Cultural Renewal...
Like China Europe was also in a rebuilding process after the plague. This period saw the city-states of Spain, Portugal, France, England, and various German principalities learn to tax their citizens more effectively and create a more effective administrative structure and creation of armies. It also saw a renewed cultural blossoming, known in European history at the Renaissance. Influenced by classical models, Renaissance figures were more interested in capturing the unique qualities of particular individuals and describing the world as it was then in portraying or exploring religious truths.
European Comparisons: Maritime Voyaging...
This period saw the voyages of Vasco de Gama, Christopher Columbus, and many others. Unlike China’s naval explorations Europe had no single unified empire, and this rivalry between its many states would drive the Europeans to the ends of the earth for goods and glory. The European elite also sought to set up merchant communities across the world for taxation, trade, and profit. Chinese withdrawal from the Indian Ocean cleared the way for Portuguese explorers to enter the region, had Vasco de Gama encountered a Chinese fleet European and world history would surely be changed. Europe’s agriculture based on wheat and livestock, were also driving forces for acquiring new foreign lands.
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